062OEC’s This Week in Trees (part 2)

Sierra Leone:

20) A delegation of environmentalists led by the National Executive Commissioner of the newly established National Commission for the Environment, Mr. Chris Squire, on Friday 27th January 2006, held an impressive forum with members of parliament at parliament building Tower Hill in Freetown, with a view to discuss issues bordering on the preservation and protection of the much talked about Gola forest. The delegation was accompanied by partners from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, based in the United Kingdom. Giving a brief background of the newly established commission, Mr. Squire stated that the commission forms part of H.E. the President, Alhaji Dr. Ahmad Tejan Kabbah’s initiative, to play a proactive role in the protection of the environment which he noted, has been threatened by the huge demand for water and trees. He pointed out that the whole essence is to protect and maintain the country’s forest reserves. According to him, the President, Alhaji Dr. Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, in 2004, made a public pronouncement that the Gola forest will be protected so as to ensure that it remains as the country’s best example of a humid forest and as a permanent home for the many species of wild animals and plants found there. He also maintained that the logging, hunting, farming, mining and other related activities that threatens the destruction of the forest, will from henceforth not be allowed within the legal boundaries of the forest reserves. The Director of Forestry, Mr. Barthalome Kamara in his remarks, thanked members of parliament present at the deliberation for their time and efforts, stating that the forestry division of the government has been doing remarkably well in the area of forest management in the constituted forest reserves. Kamara went on to assert that the Gola forest which is located in the southern and eastern regions of the country, covers an area of about 74,000 hectares. This forest he went on, is found in seven chiefdoms within the Kailahun, Kenema and Pujehun districts. “It is the largest track of lowland rain forest in Sierra Leone and it is an integral part of the upper Guinean forest block (Guinea to Togo), renowned to be the greatest hot spot for biodiversity in the whole world. And as such, it is a priority area for global action on biodiversity conservation”, Mr. Kamara maintained. http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_20051463.shtml

South America:

21) A race is on between a series of pipeline projects already being developed under the auspices of multinational corporations and the proposal unveiled at Brasilia. The corporate projects invariably link oilfields in the continental interior—the Amazon and Orinoco basins—with the Pacific and Caribbean coasts for export to the United States. The Cano-Limon pipeline, run by a consortium led by California’s Occidental Petroleum, links Colombia’s Arauca oilfields in the Orinoco with the Caribbean. To the south, the Putumayo-Tumaco line links the new oilfields of the Colombian Amazon to the Pacific, with Petrobank Energy of Canada a major investor. In Ecuador, the new Heavy Crude Oilduct (OCP) similarly spans the Andes, linking Amazon oilfields to the coast, with Occidental again a leading member of the consortium. In Peru, the Camisea pipeline, built by Halliburton for a consortium led by Hunt Oil of Texas, has just gone on line, again linking Amazon gasfields to the coast. All of these projects have met with long protest campaigns by impacted indigenous and campesino communities. And another such project, a proposed gas line linking the Bolivian Amazon to the Chilean coast, to be built by Sempra Energy of California, was effectively cancelled by the Bolivian indigenous uprising of October 2003. The main pillar of the Chavez plan, in contrast, does not link the Amazon to the sea but crosses the Amazon to link the South American nations to one another. The proposed arteries that would reach the sea envision exports not to the US but to China. http://www.ww4report.com/node/1531

Costa Rica:

22) Faced with the prospect of plunging from a treetop, I wasn’t fazed. I’m no Crocodile Hunter, but I enjoy outdoors fun — river rafting, snow skiing, even skydiving. By comparison, being connected to a cable stretched between trees was kids’ play. What stunned me about our proposed Costa Rica zipline tour was that my wife suggested it. Amy is many things, but “daredevil” isn’t one of them. This is a woman who gets vertigo at the top of the stairs. The routine seemed simple enough: Keep one hand on the clip connecting you to the cable, the other hand — encased in leather — on the line for use as a brake. Through it all, Amy was a rock among the trees. I couldn’t have been prouder. Not quite flying, the zipline is nonetheless liberating. Dropping from the platform, I zoomed along the cable and over shorter trees and assorted flora, accompanied by the soft “zzzzzzzz” sound from my pulley overhead. That first trip lasted maybe 20 seconds but easily felt twice as long. Being out in the open, with little noise around you, gives a person time to think. And it only got better from there. The cables varied in length, and our guides let us know when to use our “hand brake” and when to fly free. As Amy found out on that first line, braking too much, too soon, can leave you hanging. I had no such issues, instead enjoying the open air and nice views with each zip. The first few lines offered nice views of La Fortuna, a small town near the Arenal volcano. The volcano itself wasn’t in view, but that didn’t matter as we descended into the forest. The last few lines not only were longer but gave the best sensation of soaring through the trees. As Amy counted the number of cables until the end, I loosened up with each line. I may not have hung upside down like one of our guides, but it was easy after a few trips to relax my arms and take in the scenery. I mean, the ground isn’t that far below us, right? Our canopy tour ended too soon for me, and I had to resist rushing up to the first platform for another run. Amy wasn’t as anxious, but I was impressed that she finished the tour. http://www.charlotte.com/mld/charlotte/living/travel/13739920.htm

Venzuela:

23) The proposed new pipeline links between Colombia and Venezuela would have to cross the Sierra de Perija, the mountain range which forms the Colombian border. This strategic Sierra is already slated by the Chavez government for new coal-mining concessions—which has led to the first signs of tension between the populist regime and indigenous peoples and ecologists. Indigenous territories in the Sierra de Perija have yet to be demarcated by the national government. Rusbel Palmar, a leader of the Organization of Indigenous Peoples of Zulia (ORPIZ), wants to issue be settled before new mining concessions are granted. “The coal infrastructure plans have not been presented to indigenous people,” he told Venezuelanalysis. “These plans cannot be done without consultation with indigenous people and different sectors of civil society.” The national plan for the Sierra and Zulia includes construction of a new mega-port for coal export at the sea mouth of Lake Maracaibo Indigenous territories in the Sierra de Perija have yet to be demarcated by the national government. Rusbel Palmar, a leader of the Organization of Indigenous Peoples of Zulia (ORPIZ), wants to issue be settled before new mining concessions are granted. “The coal infrastructure plans have not been presented to indigenous people,” he told Venezuelanalysis. “These plans cannot be done without consultation with indigenous people and different sectors of civil society.” The national plan for the Sierra and Zulia includes construction of a new mega-port for coal export at the sea mouth of Lake Maracaibo. At a forum at the Second Bolivarian Congress of Peoples held that month in Venezuela, Martinez said: “Just as there existed a human rights mafia in Venezuela, environmentalists formed a green mafia. Behind this green mafia, opposed to the exploitation of coal in the Sierra de Perija, were the counter-revolutionaries and the transnational companies, and it was directed by the CIA.” http://www.ww4report.com/node/1531

Pakistan:

24) LAHORE: Rapid urbanisation in Lahore in the last five years has not only increased land prices but is also likely to cause acute air pollution as the tree cover in Lahore’s southern suburbs is being shorn. Another buffer zone on the city’s north along the bank of Ravi, in Lahore’s first master plan, has gradually been lost to encroachments and the construction of roads. Temperatures recorded in Lahore’s northern areas are about three degrees higher than the temperatures of the southern areas, mainly because of massive concrete structures, traffic and the lack of adequate tree cover for the populated areas. International environmental studies suggest that populated cities like Lahore should have at least 35 to 40 percent tree cover, but Lahore’s tree cover is not more than 20 percent, in which a five to 10 percent decrease is feared because of the mushroom growth of new housing societies in all suburbs of Lahore. He said a tree provides oxygen to about three people, therefore 2.5 million trees were required for 7.5 million people. He said nobody should be allowed to embezzle funds for planting trees. He wanted the CDGL to set tree cover standards for all residential localities. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C01%5C31%5Cstory_31-1-2006_pg7_18

China:

25) HAIKOU — A state-level forestry park stretching along the coastline of Hainan Province, China’s southernmost island, has opened to visitors recently. Covering over 526 hectares, the park, the first of its kind in China, boasts a mangrove forest belt with over 30 species of such trees, according to Chen Xiaochuan, manager of a state-run farm that administrates the park with the approval of the State Forestry Administration. The mangrove forests, as well as coral reefs and sand dunes, act like a buffer against tsunamis and storm surges. Many coastal villages survived Damrey, the strongest typhoon that pounded the province since 1974, in late September last year thanks to the protection of the mangroves. In addition, visitors to the coastal park can also enjoy the sceneries of many rare trees, including banyan communities and over 2,000 wild litchi trees, which are over 1,000 years old. The park region has also been a habitat of various fishes, shrimps, crabs and sea birds. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/30/content_4119256.htm

Bangladesh:

26) Freestyle grabbing of government land and indiscriminate destruction of forests have become an order of the day in Cox’s Bazar coastal areas, mainly for shrimp cultivation. Local ruling party leaders and influencials are grabbing stretches of forests close to the coast one after another in the five upazilas despite filing of cases by the forest department and court orders for recovery of encroached forests. The forest department is virtually an onlooker in the face of land grabbing race, its officials said. They said about 12,000 out of 27,293 acres of forestland in the district have fallen in the hands of land grabbers in the last four years or so. The lands have been grabbed in Gomatoli, Pokkhali, Chawfaldandi, Varuakhali, Tetaya, Khuruskhul and Zhilanga in the Sadar upazila; Baro Moheshkhali, Kalamarchhara, Hetalia Ghona, Jhapua, Panirchhara, Kutubzum, Gorok Ghata, Kali Gong, Hoanok, Hariar Chara, Thakur Tala, Fakira Ghona, North Nolbila, Dhal Ghata, Amabayshya Khali, Matar Bari, Shona Dia and Ghati Bhanga in Moheshkhali upazila, they said. The forest officials said they filed 458 cases against 1843 encroachers in the last four years. The courts at different times ordered recovery of 912 acres of forestland– 320 acres in Dhalghata, 200 in Charandip, 10 in Matarbari, 350 in Siradia and 32 acres in Lemshikhali. But the matter virtually ended there. “We are still filing cases but there has been little progress in either recovery of the lands or taking steps against the encroachers”, Cox’s Bazar Forest Range Officer Kush Kumar Baidya said talking to this correspondent on Sunday. Encroachment is continuing as the grabbed lands are not recovered and the culprits go unpunished, he said. http://www.thedailystar.net/2006/01/31/d60131070286.htm

India:

27) The rowdy elephant, officials said, had refused to be bogged down by barbed wire fencing. He even tided over broom beatings by the locals, who had eventually decided to poison it just before when forest officials stepped in. The animal was transported from the village to the main Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary and was released into the wild after first aid and specialised training to avoid village landmarks. The vagabond tusker has now been fitted with a radio collar so that his movements can be tracked. “Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary has got a very good forest cover and also houses a lot of migrant elephants which are here in north Bengal. We hope that since this elephant was not getting enough forest cover in southern parts of Bengal. But here we have better forest cover, so we hope that it will stay in this forest,” says P.T. Bhutia, Chief Conservator of Forests, West Bengal Government. The jungles in the northeastern parts of India are one of the last significant refuges of the mainland variety, Elephas maximus. But with the increase in population and logging have bitten badly into that refuge. Many of the protected forests exist; many of them are either too small or poorly protected, and too scattered to support large herds. Often, the pachyderms find migration routes blocked by villages, canals, and railway lines. Recent studies say the animals are increasingly going on rampage in the villages and dozens emerge from the jungle every year to take advantage of the paddy harvest, others have discovered a taste for local liquor and drink everything they can lay their trunks on. http://news.webindia123.com/news/showdetails.asp?id=235066&n_date=20060130&cat=India

Japan:

28) When the British government began to close the many coal mines in Wales in the 1970s and ’80s, a lot of men were put out of work. Then Japanese companies began building factories in Wales, giving people jobs, hope and pride again. The letter came from a scientist working with the forest park — together with questions as to which native Japanese trees would survive or thrive in Wales. I learned, they wanted to plant a reclaimed area with Japanese trees as a gesture of thanks and goodwill to Japan and to the many Japanese technicians, managers and their families who came to work and live in Wales. I hadn’t been back to Wales for many years, and I was, to say the least, intrigued by the thought of there being trees in that particular valley just over the hill from where I grew up in Neath. I clearly recalled how its woods and streams had been devastated by the mining industry, and scarred with slag heaps and dumps. When I returned I was astounded and deeply impressed by the work that had been done to bring back trees, wildlife and healthy streams. Consequently, I determined to devote my life in Japan not just to writing, filming and bitching about environmental degradation, but to actually working with forests, trying to make things better. I was inspired to begin buying up connecting parcels of neglected and abused woodland here where I live in Kurohime, Nagano Prefecture, with the aim of returning it to its natural, healthy diversity. At a small ceremony in our woods in the summer of 2002, we “twinned” our little forest trust to the Afan Argoed Forest Park. Since our two forests “twinned,” they have successfully made a Japanese section of the park in Wales, and called it a Kanji Wood. Several Japanese species of trees and shrubs have been planted, and some large wooden “kanji” sculptures made, signifying forests, life, mountains, streams and so forth. Richard Wagstaff, Chief Warden of the park, took me to see one of the largest of the sculptures, the kanji for “forest,” on which is carved — in English, Welsh and Japanese — the story of the links between Japan and Wales, even mentioning this lad from Neath who was recreating a forest in Japan. I was really touched to see that, and also delighted to have my dear friends Christian and Natsuyo Searle with us, as they did so much to get it all together. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fe20060201cw.html

Malaysia:

29) SELANGOR folks, particularly the conservation-minded populace, were overjoyed when an area the size of Perlis was declared the State Heritage Park last August. The momentous event formed part of the state’s celebration of attaining developed status. As much as 107,000ha of forested areas in the districts of Hulu Langat, Gombak and Hulu Selangor, will make up the park to be managed by the newly set-up State Park Corporation. However, uncertainty over the park surfaced two days after the declaration by Deputy Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak. Logging was reported by villagers living adjacent to the Hulu Langat Forest Reserve. The Selangor Government then clarified that the Aug 27 event was merely to announce the establishment of the park. It said the process of gazetting the park area was still underway. This means the recommended park boundaries have yet to be determined and approved. Of the 13,843ha reserve, 9,545.7ha is designated as production forest while the remaining 4,297.8ha is protected to serve 10 ecological and recreational functions. The logging has triggered a fresh round of protest from villagers affected by lorries hauling logs on the only access road into their villages. Mohd Khir again issued a stop-work order pending investigation into the logging method which he claimed was damaging the environment. But the order was not complied with. “More machineries were brought into the forest. We could hear trees falling in the jungle,” said Abdul Shukor Abdul Kadir, who chairs the committee formed to address the problem. He claimed that the next morning, more logs were taken out from the jungle. Nik Mohamed Shah, however, said the loggers were clearing logs felled before the issuance of the order. “Actual logging has not begun. The loggers were felling trees to make the logging trail to gain access to the selected trees. This is the most tricky aspect in the logging process,” he explained, referring to the scale of erosion brought by clear-felling. Nik Mohamed Shah said the department has identified 90% of the 13 Forest Reserves which fall within the recommended park boundaries to be gazetted as park areas. A big portion of the land is above 1,000m and forms a 437 sq km watershed. The highland is regarded as the “water tower” of the Klang Valley as it is the source of three main rivers – the Kelang, Selangor and Langat – that feed five major dams and 23 water intakes in the state, and account for 98% of its water supplies. http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2006/1/31/lifefocus/13147260&sec=lifefocus

Indonesia:

30) Borneo – KOTA KINABALU – The Penamapang District Office has ordered a stop to all logging activities surrounding Kg Timpangoh, Kg Babagon Laut, Kg Kerian, Kg Buaian and Upper Moyog, in response to the depleting water resources. District Officer Stephen Sondoh said they do not allow further logging activities in those areas to safeguard vital water resources and depletion of timber resources by greedy operators. He said circulars to this effect would be issued to all village headmen and chairmen of Village development and security Committees seeking their cooperation against any illegal logging activity taking place in their respective areas. The decision to issue a stop order was reached during meeting with a special committee on Friday. The special committee was formed last year to study and make proposals as well as recommendations to the government on certain areas that needed to be preserved and protected, earmarked as water catchments in the district, he said. This would mean that the District Office would no longer entertain further request to carry out logging activities which could seriously result in adverse effects on forestry and water resources. On Jan 25, Consumer Association of Sabah (CASH) has urged the authorities concerned to act swiftly to save the area that had been earmarked for water catchment. Cash pointed out that the people would not want to see the indiscriminate destruction of the forest in the State. http://www.brunei-online.com/bb/tue/jan31b1.htm

New Zealand:

31) A zealous generation of Arboricultural fundamentalists seems determined to ensure that ‘native’ trees must trump ‘exotics’ whatever the setting. Every new roundabout, motorway off-ramp and city square is being kitted out in the same mélange of assorted Coprosmas, Pittosporums, Ti-Tree flaxes and either kahikateas or totara. Coastal zones get the obligatory pohutukawa and no space seems spared from an outbreak of cabbage trees. As long as it’s native it must be okay. Unless, that is, the silent majority are unleashed. As the Auckland City Council recently discovered when faced with revolt at the hands of Save Auckland Trees led by the formidable Lesley Max. Diasporans who have not already followed this gripping story will roll their eyes to learn that an exotics extermination campaign was all but underway in Queen Street. Perfectly healthy and attractive exotics were to be axed in favour of “nikau palms, flaxes and a few pots for plants providing seasonal cover” as The New Zealand Herald put it. An agenda rooted in some muddled ideas about national identity was about to inflict token indigeneity amidst the soul-less gulch that serves as the ‘heart’ of modern Auckland. Lesley Max’s victory has sent something ominously called the “urban design panel” back to the drawing board to look at “the function, type and number of trees”. New Zealand has native and exotic floristic heritages. They both matter – and they can be mixed. But until someone is prepared to apply a little discrimination and imagination, please lay off the clumps of quick growing, sub-canopy species that will be leggy and drab in no time: or the poor old totaras, condemned to grow shaggy and grim on road sidings or in traffic roundabouts until their sheer inappropriateness invites the chainsaw, a waste of thirty years growth and another round of quick-fix arboricultural fundamentalism. http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0601/S00233.htm

Australia:

32) Town of Hoddles Creek has had a small environmental victory after the Shire of Yarra Ranges agreed to oppose an application for the logging of native vegetation on 99 hectares of land. However, the fight is just beginning because before council could make a decision the applicant, Morgan Logging logged an appeal with the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal. The appeal was lodged by Morgan Logging as it felt the council had taken too long to make a decision. The council last Tuesday agreed that the logging of the vegetation would have an adverse effect on the local environment and planned to inform VCAT that it was opposed to the application. The applicant, Morgan Logging, applied for a permit to remove 99 hectares of native vegetation for the purposes of timber production at 565 Thonemans Road in Hoddles Creek. However, the council received 25 objections from nearby residents and environmental groups outraged at the application. The residents raised concerns about the destruction of flora and fauna, adverse impact on the surrounding habitat and the fragmentation of the bushland. Spokesperson for the objectors, Jennifer Seabrook said the site, 128 hectares of multi-age native forest that fronts Hoddles and McCrae Creek was an excellent example of a richly biodiverse, ecological community, that forms part of a critical habitat corridor. Mrs Seabrook said the application was completely opposite to the shire’s Vision 2020 policy and was at odds with other legislation.She said the Vision 2020 requires the shire as environmental stewards to actively lead the way in enhancing the ecological Sustainability of the Yarra Ranges. Mrs Seabrook said clear-felling as intended by the applicant would leave token understorey islands and seed trees and would dramatically reduce its viability. “This proposal will have a major impact on the amenity and lifestyle of the local community, who have a strong appreciation of the local bushland,” she said. http://www.starnewsgroup.com.au/story/9247

33) BEEKEEPERS concerned about the clearfelling of leatherwood in the state’s South were celebrating yesterday. Save Our Leatherwood Honey president Bob Davey said beekeepers had just received a letter “at the 11th hour” from Forests Minister Bryan Green promising to look into their concerns. “He is the first minister in 20 years to offer to talk to us,” he said. “It has taken us eight months of campaigning to get them to talk to us.” The letter followed a phone call to Tasmanian Beekeepers Association president Julian Wolfhagen from Forestry Tasmania executive general manager Hans Drielsma offering to discuss the situation after an article in The Australian newspaper over the weekend. Mr Davey said about 85 people had gathered at the Arve Rd picnic ground yesterday to talk about the threat logging poses to the leatherwood industry. Many beekeepers estimate current logging plans will destroy the last commercial stands of leatherwood trees in the southern forests within 18 months. http://www.themercury.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,17978146%255E3462,00.html

34) HINDMARSH VALLEY – A 22.72ha farm forest has been approved for a 71.4ha property on the Hindmarsh Valley Road. The City of Victor Harbor’s Development Assessment Panel (DAP) granted approval for the development at its meeting on Monday night. Only one panel member, Keith Loeser, spoke in opposition to the farm forest in the light of a possible environmental threat. Unlike recent controversial farm forest applications, this one not only includes Tasmanian blue gums, but other species including Sydney Blue Gum (5.6ha) and 11.6ha of Sugar Gum. The plan is for the trees to grow for 25-35 years before being harvested for sawlogs. Another panel member, Robert Webb, expressed concern that the 22.72ha being taken up with the plantings would not have any economic benefit for 25 years. However, the report to the DAP indicated that the area under the trees would still be used for grazing, once the trees were established (about two years after planting). http://victorharbor.yourguide.com.au/detail.asp?class=news&subclass=local&story_id=455857&category=General%
20News&m=2&y=2006

Tropical Forests:

35) Analysis of seven tropical forests around the world reveals that nature encourages species diversity by selecting for less common trees as the trees mature. The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute funded the science conducted by 33 ecologists from 12 countries. According to a January 26 NSF press release, the landmark study conclusively shows that diversity matters and is ecologically important to tropical forests. “Each forest in our study is a highly dynamic community,” said project collaborator Kyle Harms, a biologist at Louisiana State University. “We found that the diversity of each local area increased regardless of the species that were present,” he added. “This is because trees that were locally common tended to die more often than those that were locally rare, giving a survival advantage to rare species.” The study was conducted on seven forest plots, or “tropical forest observatories,” maintained and studied by research institutions in Borneo, India, Malaysia, Panama, Puerto Rico and Thailand, under the coordination of the Smithsonian’s Center for Tropical Forest Science in Panama. The forest plots, two from the Americas and five from Asia, range from dense and species-rich wet rain forest to drier and more open forest that often is swept by fires. All the forests show the same pattern of increasing local diversity as trees age. In addition to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, institutions that manage the tropical forest observatories are the Indian Institute of Science, Royal Forest Department of Thailand, University of Peradeniya of Sri Lanka, University of Puerto Rico and the Forest Research Institutes in Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. Three possibilities might play a role in increasing diversity, according to the study’s authors. Rare species might have an advantage for the following reasons: 1) Animals, fungi, bacteria and viruses that prey on them are less likely to cause damage when their hosts are rare. 2) In competition for certain physical resources, trees of the same species tend to share more similar resource requirements than those of different species. 3) When tree species have direct, positive influences on each other, trees of rare species are on average surrounded by a high proportion of trees that are different from themselves. None of the processes can operate in forests where individual trees are all one species. Such forests are susceptible to diseases and trees are in direct competition with others like themselves. http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2006&m=January&x=20060131132655lcnirel
lep0.7701074&t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html

World-Wide:

36) Over 180 governments, international organizations and an intergovernmental body negotiated outstanding text from the final working document that resulted from the third part of the UN Conference (TD/TIMBER.3/L.6). After a relatively uneventful first week, negotiations kicked into high gear with a sense of urgency, derived from the fact that the current Agreement will expire at the end of this year. As the deadline rapidly approached, both Consumers and Producers of tropical timber managed to achieve consensus on an Agreement that reflects the evolving nature of the Organization and the international dialogue on forest issues. With the new Agreement established, both camps are breathing a sigh of relief, confident that project work can continue without an interruption in funding. A champagne reception did much to wash away the cloud of tension that had permeated discussions towards the end of the second week. The Agreement will be opened for signature on 3 April 2006, and all hope for an early entry into force. http://www.iisd.ca/vol24/enb2475e.html