24) The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) estimates that there are over 50,000 fires each summer and that more than 90 per cent of them are started by people, either deliberately or accidentally. The fires, together with unrestrained urban sprawl, over-exploitation and land misuse in other parts of the region, threaten to deplete the Mediterranean forest ecosystems, one of the world’s richest stores of biodiversity. The Mediterranean basin is home to over 25,000 different species of flowering plants, half of which are unique to the basin. Climate change threatens to make matters worse. Not only will the more intense and frequent heat waves and hotter summers, predicted by climate change models, make forest fires more devastating, rising temperatures and lower rainfall pose their own problems of adaptation for the region’s flora and fauna, threatening the survival of many. “Mediterranean forests face important threats…forest fires, climate change, agriculture, urban developments are eroding biodiversity,” said Juan Antonio Prado, FAO director of forest resources. Environmentalist group WWF says the number of large-scale forest fires in the Mediterranean has increased dramatically over the last few decades. The heat waves of 2003 and 2004, which provoked huge blazes across the northern Mediterranean climatic region, particularly in Portugal, were a taste of the sort of searing summer weather that can be expected with climate change. In 2007, Greece had its worst ever fires. http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=3370

Tropical Forests:

25) Land Use, Nature Conservation and the Stability of Rainforest Margins in Southeast Asia, by Gerhard Gerold, Michael Fremerey, Edi Guhardja: The stability of rainforest margins has been identified as a critical factor in the preservation of tropical forests, e.g., in Southeast Asia, one of the world’s most extensive rainforest regions. This book contains a selection of contributions presented at an international symposium on “Land Use, Nature Conservation and the Stability of Rainforest Margins in Southeast Asia,” in Bogor, Indonesia, October 2002. It highlights the critical issue of rainforest preservation from an interdisciplinary perspective, comprising input from scientists in socio-economic, biological, geographical, agrarian and forestry disciplines. The contributions are based on recent empirical research, with a special focus on Indonesia – a country with one of the highest and, at the same time, most endangered stocks of rainforest resources on earth. http://wow-rebates.com/land-use-nature-conservation-and-the-stability-of-rainforest-margins-in-southeast-asia-environmental-science-and-engineering-environmental-science-gerhard-gerold-michael-fremerey-edi-guhardja/

26) Tropical rainforests, whose true worth and unrealized global treasure has been so blatantly been ignored, are being destroyed at a disastrous speed. Every year during the dry season, thousands of fires set by ranchers and nomad farmers light up the tropical sky. Today roughly 1.5 acres of rainforest are destroyed every second. It’s hard to imagine that we would knowingly destroy something so valuable; could it be that we are destroying them before we realize their worth? Before we truly understand their biodiversity? And even before we fully understand the life and the ecosystems they support? Massive deforestation brings with it many horrifying consequences – air and water pollution, soil erosion, the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the eviction and decimation of indigenous Indian tribes, and the extinction of many plants, animals and creatures. Fewer rainforests mean less rain, less oxygen for us to breathe, and an increased threat of global warming. Confucius said, “A man who has committed a mistake and doesn’t correct it, is committing another mistake.” Clearly deforestation is man’s mistake. So how do we correct this mistake? Can we correct this mistake? If deforestation ceased today, it would help immensely, but unfortunately would not be enough. We have lost complete species, both in plant and animal life; however, all is not lost. What we can hope for in bringing deforestation to an end is a new beginning; new species to evolving and the rebirth of this diminishing treasure. With the rapid loss of Earth’s rainforests, it’s time to correct our mistake. There is no simple solution or quick fix, but there are definitely steps that can be taken to stop the deforestation and restore not only the damaged ecosystems, but the beauty of life that’s been lost. http://www.paradiseearth.com/2008/09/4-steps-to-saving-rainforests.html

27) The world’s tropical forests, which circle the globe, are interestingly diverse. Ranging from the steamy jungles of the rain forests to the dry forests and savannas, they provide habitat for millions of species of plants and animals. Once covering some 15.3 billion acres (6.2 billion ha), these tropical forests have been reduced through cutting and clearing by 210 million acres (85 million ha) between 1985 and 1990. All types of tropical forests are defined and their products and benefits to the environment are presented and discussed. Modern forest practices are shown as a means of halting forest destruction while still providing valuable forest products and protecting and preserving the habitats of many endangered species of plants and wildlife. The Luquillo Experimental Forest is presented as a possible model to exemplify forestry practices and research that could manage and ultimately protect the tropical forests throughout the world. http://redapes.org/news-updates/a-student-guide-to-tropical-forest-conservation/

World-wide:

28) The forests of the future may need to be managed as much for a sustainable supply of clean water as any other goal, researchers say in a new federal report – but even so, forest resources will offer no “quick fix” to the insatiable, often conflicting demands for this precious resource. This new view of forests is evolving, scientists say, as both urban and agricultural demands for water continue to increase, and the role of clean water from forests becomes better understood as an “ecosystem service” of great value. Many factors – changing climate, wildfires, insect outbreaks, timber harvest, roads and even urban sprawl – are influencing water supplies from forests. Preserving and managing forests may help sustain water supplies and water quality from the nation’s headwaters in the future, they conclude, but forest management is unlikely to increase water supplies. “Historically, forest managers have not focused much of their attention on water, and water managers have not focused on forests,” said Julia Jones, a professor of geosciences at Oregon State University, and vice chair of a committee of the National Research Council, which today released a report on the hydrologic effects of a changing forest landscape. “But today’s water problems demand that these groups work together closely. “Because forests can release slightly more water for a decade or so following timber harvest, there have been suggestions that forests could be managed to increase water supplies in some areas,” Jones said. “But we’ve learned that such increases don’t last very long, and often don’t provide water when you need it most.” The science of how forest management affects water quantity and quality, Jones said, has produced a solid foundation of principles, but forests in the United States are changing rapidly, and additional research may reveal ways to provide a sustainable flow of fresh, clean water. http://www.thecreswellchronicle.com/news/story.cfm?story_no=5763

29) This WRM bulletin is a contribution to the activities to be carried out on September 21st, International Day Against Tree Monocultures. Friends of the Earth International, Global Forest Coalition and World Rainforest Movement agreed to join forces for raising awareness on this day about the social and environmental problems resulting from the expansion of such plantations. In line with this collaborative effort, the editorial of the bulletin has been jointly produced by the three organizations. More importantly, the articles included reflect a broad range of impacts and struggles in different continents and on different types of plantations. We hope it will serve as a useful tool for 21 September. Why an International Day Against Tree Monocultures? The first and more important is that many people –in South and North- are totally unaware about the social and environmental impacts resulting from large-scale tree monocultures and believe that planting trees is always positive. They are also unaware of the fact that these plantations are not aimed at improving local peoples’ livelihoods, but at feeding wasteful consumption in the North. The above situation results from a combination of factors, among which the fact that the voices of local peoples’ struggling against plantations are silenced through fear, repression or by being made invisible by the media. Both fear/repression and media invisibility result from the economic and political power of plantation companies, usually also involved in investments in the pulp, timber, palm oil or rubber industrial sectors. The companies’ power –expressed through different mechanisms- result in partial or total control over government and media, who become “partners” of their investments. As a result, whenever local people stand up for their rights against plantation companies they are defined –together with their supporters- as “troublemakers”. http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/134/viewpoint.html

30) Global woodland experts will press international climate change negotiators today to look beyond the trees as they work to save the world’s forests from destruction. A new blueprint hammered out at a series of World Bank meetings Tuesday maintains that avoiding the razing of tropical forests — which currently accounts for more than 20 percent of carbon dioxide emissions — will require countries to make major changes in everything from building roads and bridges to the way it subsidizes biofuel production. “Experience has shown that a narrow focus on the delivery of a single commodity, such as carbon, at the expense of multiple forest values is unlikely to succeed. Current climate change negotiations, however, are failing to reflect that knowledge,” a draft version of the statement warns. The destruction of C02-trapping trees in Indonesia, Brazil and other parts of the world spews more carbon into the air than every car, bus and truck on the road in the world. Yet while climate leaders agree that tropical forests must be protected, figuring out how to do it has become one of the thorniest negotiating issues as nations work to create an agreement to replace the Kyoto Protocol in 2012. Many experts contend that harnessing the $60 billion carbon market represents the best chance for saving tropical trees. But others remain concerned that simply paying governments and landowners for protecting forests ignores the deeply rooted problems of poverty, land rights and agriculture production that lead to forest destruction in the first place. The statement is the result of several meetings over several months with dozens of climate change, international forestry and indigenous peoples leaders trying to find a new way to approach avoided deforestation. Final meetings at the World Bank will wrap up this afternoon, and leaders hope to launch the proposal next month at the International Union for Conservation of Nature meeting in Barcelona, Spain. The world loses about 32 million acres of forest cover each year to the timber trade, to cattle grazing and to crops like palm oil, soybeans and corn. Nigeria’s National Forest Conservation Council, for example, has estimated that forests there will be cleared entirely in 12 years at current rates because of a heavy reliance on wood for fuel. http://www.eenews.net/climatewire/2008/09/17/2

31) This month’s World Rainforest Movement Bulletin focuses on the International Day Against Monoculture Tree Plantations on 21 September. The Bulletin explains why a campaign against industrial tree plantations is important, includes materials for campaigns as well as news and analysis from around the world about struggles against plantations. One article looks at FSC’s record in certifying of plantations. If FSC is to take its own standards seriously, it must stop certifying monoculture tree plantations (a fully referenced version of this article is available here): Asia Pulp and Paper is probably the most controversial paper company in the world. It has destroyed vast areas of forest in Sumatra and replaced hundreds of thousands of hectares with monoculture plantations. In December 2007, the Forest Stewardship Council announced its “dissociation” from APP after the company starting using the FSC logo. FSC issued a statement saying that it has “a duty to protect the good will and integrity associated with its name and logo for consumers and for our trusted partners and members.” At last, it appeared, FSC had noticed it is greenwashing environmentally and socially destructive companies. Unfortunately, the dissociation from APP remains a one-off. FSC’s goal is “to promote environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.” FSC should not certify industrial tree plantations, for the simple reason that they are not forests. FSC should no more certify plantations that it should certify fields of lettuce. Industrial tree plantations are neither environmentally responsible nor socially beneficial. They are often only economically viable as a result of generous government subsidies. Veracel is perhaps the most egregious example of the many companies that should never have been certified by FSC. Since the company established its monoculture eucalyptus plantations in the south of Bahia state in Brazil, rivers, streams and springs have dried up. As the company’s plantations have expanded the area of land planted to food crops has decreased. Rural people have lost work and moved to cities, many living in overcrowded and dangerous favelas. http://www.fsc-watch.org/archives/2008/09/19/FSC__Stop_certifying

32) There are some environment groups, such as Greenpeace, that fear credits for anti-deforestation initiatives could open the door to credits for commercial reforestation. Critics of commercial forests, often called “carbon sinks”, argue that it is difficult to guarantee the longevity of planted forests and therefore their carbon benefits. Carbon sinks are also blamed for negatively impacting local biodiversity and indigenous groups. “We acknowledge that something has to be done about protecting forests, but we do not support a market-based approach that doesn’t take into account biodiversity and human rights,” says Joris Den Blanken, European climate change policy director for Greenpeace. Forest-based credits are not the only solution to deforestation on the table. Also under debate is the possibility of auctioning future ETS emission allowances and earmarking a proportion of the resulting windfall for forest preservation. Under the present system, such allowances are allocated for free. EU member states, however, are understood to be opposed to Brussels dictating how such funds should be spent. Potential changes to the ETS will be discussed by European heads of state at mid-October’s Council meeting and a final vote by the European Parliament could take place as early as December. http://www.climatechangecorp.com/content.asp?ContentID=5649

33) The review, published September 15 in the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution, singles out deforestation associated with plantation development as by far the biggest ecological impact, but finds that the links between the two are often much more complex than portrayed in the popular press. Co-author Matt Struebig, from Queen Mary, University of London, explains: “Most land-cover statistics do not allow us to distinguish where oil palm has actually driven forest clearance. Oil palm certainly has directly replaced tropical forest in some areas, but oil palm companies also often have close links with timber or paper pulp companies, giving additional motives for deforestation.” Within countries, oil palm is usually grown in a few productive areas, but it looks set to spread further. Demand is increasing rapidly and ‘its potential as a future agent of deforestation is enormous’, the study says. Most of the suitable land left is within the last remaining large areas of tropical rainforest in Central Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia. Where oil palm has replaced tropical forest the impact on wildlife depends on what species survive in the new oil palm habitat. The study confirmed that oil palm is a poor substitute habitat for the majority of tropical forest species, particularly forest specialists and those of conservation concern. Emily Fitzherbert continues: “By compiling scientific studies of birds, bats, ants and other species, we were able to show that on average, fewer than one-sixth of the species recorded in primary forest were found in oil palm. Degraded forest, and even alternative crops such as rubber and cocoa, supported higher numbers of species than oil palm plantations.” Even this estimate is likely to be optimistic, because forest habitats are more difficult to survey and some species inhabit plantations briefly before going extinct. There is little potential to help wildlife within plantations, so ensuring that new plantations do not replace forest and protecting what is left of native forest in and around plantations are the only real options for protecting the majority of species, the researchers say. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080915121221.htm

34) Most plants have UV shielding, but not always sufficient for complete protection. Only a small proportion of the UV-B radiation striking a leaf penetrates into the inner tissues. When exposed to enhanced UV-B radiation, many species of plants can increase the UV-absorbing pigments in their outer leaf tissues. Other adaptations may include increased thickness of leaves that reduces the proportion of inner tissues exposed to UV-B radiation and changes in the protecting waxy layer of the leaves. Several repair mechanisms exist in plants, including repair systems for DNA damage or oxidant injury. The net damage a plant experiences is the result of the balance between damage and protection and repair processes. Ozone depletion results in greater amounts of UV-B radiation that will have an impact on terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical systems. Biogeochemical cycles are the complex interactions of physical, chemical, geological and biological processes that control the transport and transformation of substances in the natural environment and therefore the conditions that humans experience in the Earth’s system. The increased UV-B radiation impinging on terrestrial and aquatic systems, due to ozone depletion, results in changes in the trace gas exchange between the continents, oceans and the atmosphere. This results in complex alterations to atmospheric chemistry, the global elemental cycles, such as the carbon cycle, and may have an impact on the survival and health of all organisms on Earth, including humans. Once in the atmosphere, trace gases such as CO2 interact with the physical climate system resulting in alterations to climate and feedbacks in the global biogeochemical system. Since atmospheric CO2 concentrations play a central role in determining the distribution of heat in the atmosphere, the multiple complex components of the physical climate system such as wind, air-sea momentum, heat exchange and precipitation are influenced. There are also similarly complex interactions between biogeochemical cycling on land and the integrated climate system that have important implications for organisms on Earth. At this stage it is not possible to predict the overall effects of these complex interactions. http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=42690

35) 20 Visually Arresting but Threatened Forests We owe our lives to trees. Trees provide far more than furniture and fuel. Everyone finds forests to be beautiful, but not many know how hardworking forests really are. The world’s great forests help make our planet hospitable to life; they purify the air, manage nutrients, capture greenhouse gases, create soil, regulate wind and ocean currents, house two-thirds of the world’s plant and animal species, cool the globe, provide subsistence or jobs to 1.6 billion people, and even play a role in weather systems. And yet, the world’s forests are critically threatened. Though there are hundreds of endangered forests, the following forests are visually stunning, ecologically precious, unique and simply wondrous. http://webecoist.com/2008/09/13/20-unusual-threatened-forests-around-the-world/

36) “This is my 40th year in the field. Based on the data in my library, of the wild habitats that existed in North America in 1968, almost 50 percent of them are now extinct,” said Krause. “They’re so radically altered that you can’t hear the soundscape there anymore.” Krause’s words gave me pause. Sure, animals go extinct — but habitats? In the Amazon rainforest lives a tribe called the Jivaro. They hunt at night, carrying no torches or flashlights. Starlight and moonlight don’t penetrate the canopy. But Jivaro hunters do not need to see. They listen. The technique resembles the echolocation of dolphins or bats, but it’s more complicated than that. It’s a turn-by-turn aural GPS through a map based on a region’s acoustic complexity. I learned about the Jivaro from Bernie Krause, a bioacoustician who pioneered the study of human impacts on sonic ecosystems. I’d called him in search of recordings of extinct animals — the roars of Tasmanian tigers, the peeps of Panamanian golden frogs, calling from the graves of their species. But Krause explained that he’s not in the business of recording vanishing animals, which are only the most mediagenic manifestations of a larger disappearance. Krause records vanishing habitats. Yet it makes sense. These spaces have a character, a balance and composition, as distinct as the markings on any animal. And they can be changed: wetlands drained, roads built, properties developed, altering the terrain and species balances in ways that may be hidden to the eye, but not the ear. “Imagine walking through the rainforest. As you walk the next few hundred meters to the next habitat, even though it looks the same visually, acoustically it’s defined differently,” said Krause. “And it isn’t that the rainforest is gone. It’s that an important component of the forest is gone. It’s like cutting off your finger, your balls, a toe, your ear.” Krause has installed natural soundscapes at museums around the country, with the latest scheduled to debut later this month at the California Academy of Sciences. That exhibit will include audio rainforest habitats from Borneo, Madagascar, Costa Rica, and the Amazon jungles of Brazil and Belize. Three of these — Borneo, Costa Rica and Madagascar — are now gone, said Krause. I asked whether they would ever return. http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/09/the-sounds-of-v.html

37) The study of symbiosis is quintessential systems biology. It integrates not only all levels of biological analysis — from molecular to ecological — but also the study of the interplay between organisms in the three domains of life. The development of this field is still in its early stages, but so far, the findings promise to revolutionize the way we view the biotic world. This Essay outlines some of the challenges facing the field and the implications of its development for all of biology. At this juncture, biologists cannot be blamed for finding themselves in a kind of ‘future shock’, the psychological state that was described by Alvin Toffler1 in 1970 as “too much change in too short a time.” Sequencing projects are producing information at prodigious rates and this information is dramatically altering our perceptions of the microbial world. Our view of animal and plant symbioses with microorganisms has been particularly susceptible to change (Fig. 1). Historically, biologists have mainly concentrated on the study of the major macrobiotic groups (animals, plants and fungi) as individuals, characterizing their form and function (or phenotype) as a derivative of their own genotype alone. The exception to this trend lies in the focus of microbiologists on microorganisms as agents that induce pathogenesis. How will new perspectives on microorganisms as evolutionary partners change the way that we think about biological systems? First, let us consider why we, as biologists, think the way we do about these systems. http://www.mydeadspace.cn/blog/?p=277